In What Ways Was Europe Changing In The 16th And 17th Centuries?

History of Europe by period

Early on modern Europe, also referred to equally the mail-medieval period, is the catamenia of European history betwixt the cease of the Middle Ages and the offset of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century. Historians variously mark the beginning of the early mod period with the invention of moveable type printing in the 1450s, the Fall of Constantinople and end of the Hundred Years' War in 1453, the terminate of the Wars of the Roses in 1485, the beginning of the High Renaissance in Italy in the 1490s, the end of the Reconquista and subsequent voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492, or the start of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. The precise dates of its end indicate also vary and are usually linked with either the start of the French Revolution in 1789 or with the more vaguely defined kickoff of the Industrial Revolution in late 18th century England.

Some of the more notable trends and events of the early on modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the French Wars of Faith and the Thirty Years' War), the ascent of capitalism and modern nation states, widespread witch hunts and European colonization of the Americas.

Characteristics [edit]

The mod period was characterized past profound changes in many realms of human endeavor. Among the nearly important include the development of science as a formalized practice, increasingly rapid technological progress, and the institution of secularized civic politics, law courts and the nation state. Capitalist economies began to develop in a nascent grade, first in the northern Italian republics such as Genoa and Venice equally well every bit in the cities of the Low Countries, and afterwards in France, Federal republic of germany and England. The early on modernistic flow likewise saw the rise and authorisation of the economic theory of mercantilism. Equally such, the early modern period is often associated with the decline and eventual disappearance (at least in Western Europe) of feudalism and serfdom. The Protestant Reformation greatly altered the religious residual of Christendom, creating a formidable new opposition to the potency of the Catholic Church, especially in Northern Europe. The early modern period as well witnessed the circumnavigation of the Earth and the establishment of regular European contact with the Americas and S and East Asia. The ensuing rising of global systems of international economic, cultural and intellectual exchange played an important role in the development of capitalism and represents the earliest phase of globalization.

Periodization [edit]

Regardless of the precise dates used to define its showtime and cease points, the early modernistic period is generally agreed to have comprised the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, and the Enlightenment. Every bit such, historians take attributed a number of primal changes to the flow, notably the increasingly rapid progress of scientific discipline and engineering science, the secularization of politics, and the diminution of the accented authority of the Roman Catholic Church building as well as the lessening of the influence of all faiths upon national governments. Many historians have identified the early on modern menses every bit the epoch in which individuals began to call back of themselves every bit belonging to a national polity—a notable interruption from medieval modes of self-identification, which had been largely based upon religion (belonging to a universal Christendom), linguistic communication, or feudal fidelity (belonging to the manor or extended household of a particular magnate or lord).

The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cutting, but is generally accepted to exist in the belatedly 15th century or early on 16th century. Meaning dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early mod Europe can be noted:

1450

The invention of the first European movable type printing process by Johannes Gutenberg, a device that fundamentally changed the circulation of information. Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to class words and which is an invention divide from the printing printing, had been invented earlier in Red china.

1453

The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans signalled the end of the Byzantine empire; the Battle of Castillon concluded the Hundred Years' State of war.

1485

The final Plantagenet king of England, Richard Three, was killed at Bosworth and the medieval civil wars of aristocratic factions gave way to early modernistic Tudor monarchy, in the person of Henry Seven.

1492

The first documented European voyage to the Americas by the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus; the end of the Reconquista, with the last expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula; the Spanish government expels the Jews.

1494

French king Charles Viii invaded Italia, drastically altering the status quo and beginning a serial of wars which would punctuate the Italian Renaissance.

1513

First conception of modern politics with the publication of Machiavelli'southward The Prince.

1517

The Reformation begins with Martin Luther nailing his ninety-5 theses to the door of the church building in Wittenberg, Germany.

1526

Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor gains the crowns of Bohemia and Republic of hungary.

1545

The Council of Trent begins Counter-Reformation and marks the end of the medieval Roman Catholic Church building.^[1] ^[2]

The stop date of the early modern flow is variously associated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in about 1750, or the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, which drastically transformed the state of European politics and ushered in the Napoleonic Era and modern Europe.

The function of nobles in the Feudal Organization had yielded to the notion of the Divine Right of Kings during the Middle Ages (in fact, this consolidation of ability from the land-owning nobles to the titular monarchs was ane of the most prominent themes of the Middle Ages). Among the most notable political changes included the abolition of serfdom and the crystallization of kingdoms into nation-states. Perhaps even more significantly, with the advent of the Reformation, the notion of Christendom as a unified political entity was destroyed. Many kings and rulers used this radical shift in the understanding of the earth to further consolidate their sovereignty over their territories. For case, many of the Germanic states (besides every bit English language Reformation) converted to Protestantism in an endeavour to sideslip out of the grasp of the Pope.

The intellectual developments of the menstruum included the creation of the economic theory of mercantilism and the publication of enduringly influential works of political and social philosophy, such as Machiavelli'south The Prince (1513) and Thomas More's Utopia (1515).

Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a reform-oriented schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther and continued by John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other early Protestant Reformers. It is typically dated from 1517, lasting until the cease of the Xxx Years' War (1618-1648) with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Information technology was launched on 31 October 1517 past Martin Luther, who posted his 95 Theses criticizing the practice of indulgences to the door of the Castle Church building in Wittenberg, Frg, commonly used to postal service notices to the University customs. It was very widely publicized beyond Europe and caught burn down. Luther began by criticizing the sale of indulgences, insisting that the Pope had no say-so over purgatory and that the Catholic doctrine of the merits of the saints had no foundation in the gospel. The Protestant position, however, would come to comprise doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura and sola fide.

The Reformation ended in sectionalization and the institution of new church movements. The four nigh of import traditions to emerge direct from the Reformation were Lutheranism, the Reformed (also chosen Calvinist or Presbyterian) tradition, Anglicanism, and the Anabaptists. Subsequent Protestant churches by and large trace their roots back to these initial four schools of the Reformation. It also led to the Catholic or Counter Reformation within the Roman Catholic Church through a multifariousness of new spiritual movements, reforms of religious communities, the founding of seminaries, the description of Catholic theology as well as structural changes in the institution of the Church building.^[iii]

The largest Protestant groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, kingdom of the netherlands and Scotland.^[4]

The initial move inside Deutschland diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The availability of the press press provided the ways for the rapid broadcasting of religious materials in the colloquial. The core motivation backside the Reformation was theological, though many other factors played a part, including the rise of nationalism, the Western Schism that eroded faith in the Papacy, the perceived corruption of the Roman Curia, the impact of humanism, and the new learning of the Renaissance that questioned much traditional idea.^[5]

At that place were as well reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rising to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements.^{[half dozen]}

The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent. Much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new society of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of near of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a trigger-happy conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years' State of war, which left it devastated.^[seven]

Church of England [edit]

Henry Viii broke England's ties with the Cosmic Church, becoming the sole head of the English Church.

The Reformation reshaped the Church of England decisively after 1547. The separation of the Church of England (or Anglican Church) from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement; however, religious changes in the English language national church proceeded more than conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church building of England alternated, for decades, betwixt sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing, inside the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.^[eight]

Consequences of the Protestant Reformation [edit]

The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regarding homo uppercase formation, the Protestant ethic, economic development, governance, and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars.^[9]

Historiography [edit]

Margaret C. Jacob argues that in that location has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and also the theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. All the same, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s look at history from the lesser up, non from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, behavior and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation was and so seen every bit a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement and textured and rich because of its variety."^[x]

Age of Enlightenment [edit]

The Historic period of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is ofttimes thought of as function of a period which includes the Age of Reason. The term besides more specifically refers to a historical intellectual move, The Enlightenment. This motility advocated rationality as a means to institute an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, and logic. The intellectual leaders of this motility regarded themselves as a mettlesome elite, and regarded their purpose every bit one of leading the world toward progress and out of a long menstruation of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they believed began during a historical period they called the Dark Ages. This motility as well provided a framework for the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution of May iii, and also led to the ascension of liberalism and the nativity of socialism and communism.^[11] It is matched by the high baroque and classical eras in music, and the neo-classical period in the arts, and receives contemporary application in the unity of science movement which includes logical positivism.

Difference between 'early modern' and the Renaissance [edit]

The expression "early modern" is sometimes used as a substitute for the term Renaissance, and vice versa. Nonetheless, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments; which occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—particularly central and northern Italy—and bridge the transition from late Medieval civilization and the opening of the early on modern period.

The term early modern is nigh often applied to Europe, and its overseas empire. Yet, it has also been employed in the history of the Ottoman Empire. In the historiography of Japan, the Edo period from 1590 to 1868 is also sometimes referred to as the early on modern period.

Affairs and warfare [edit]

After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll

The 17th century saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought in 95 years (every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682.)^[12] The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of slap-up intellectual, scientific, creative and cultural accomplishment. Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was:

prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing power. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations betwixt states and peoples in particular. The fact was virtually completely opposite. It was a menstruum of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the carry of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies.^[13]

The worst came during the 30 Years' War, 1618-1648, which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Deutschland and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and order.

Thirty Years' War: 1618–1648 [edit]

The Reformation led to a series of religious wars that culminated in the Thirty Years' State of war (1618–1648), which devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and xl% of its entire population.^[fourteen] Roman Catholic House of Habsburg and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Kingdom of denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Cosmic France centrolineal itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions once again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:

All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the organized religion of his ain state, the options beingness Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).
Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to do their religion in public during allotted hours and in private at their volition.

The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. Pope Innocent Ten declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and issue for all times" in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Cosmic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.^[15]

Scholars taking a "realist" perspective on wars and affairs accept emphasized the Peace of Westphalia (1648) as a dividing line. It concluded the 30 Years War (1618-1648), where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international organization of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to credo or religion but to raise status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult chore of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands Using devoted members of order such as the Jesuits.^[16] According to Hamish Scott, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," past the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known equally a 'rest of ability.'^[17]

Diplomacy before 1700 was non well developed, and chances to avert wars were too often squandered. In England, for example, King Charles II paid picayune attention to affairs, which proved disastrous. During the Dutch state of war of 1665-67, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a serial of blunders that ruined their efforts to notice allies.^[18] King Louis XIV of France, past contrast, developed the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and pocket-size capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly bonny to rich senior aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin.^[19] By 1700, the British and the Dutch, with pocket-sized land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing equally needed country powers to fight on their side, or every bit in the instance of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries.^[20] The residue of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a boxing hither was worth the slice of territory in that location, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at Utrecht (1713), Vienna (1738), Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in commutation for territory.^[21]

Major states [edit]

Holy Roman Empire [edit]

In 1512, the Holy Roman Empire inverse its proper noun to Holy Roman Empire of the High german nation. The Habsburg Business firm of Republic of austria held the position of Holy Roman Emperors since the mid-1400s and for the unabridged Early mod catamenia. Despite the lack of a centralized political structure in a flow in which national monarchies were emerging, the Habsburg Emperors of the Early mod period came shut to form a universal monarchy in Western Europe.

The Habsburgs expanded their control within and exterior the Holy Roman Empire as a outcome of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy, thus bringing the Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg inheritance. Their son, Philip the Handsome, married Joanna the Mad of Espana (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (son of Philip and Joanna) inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Espana and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Republic of austria in 1519.

The chief opponents of the Habsburg Empire were the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of France. The Habsburgs clashed with French republic in a series of Italian wars. The Battle of Pavia (1525) initiated the Habsburg primacy in Italia and the replacement of France every bit the primary European power. Nevertheless, religious wars forced Charles V to abdicate in 1556 and divide the Habsburg possessions betwixt Spain and Austria. The next Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I completed the Quango of Trent and maintained Germany at peace until the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The Habsburgs controlled the elective monarchies of Hungary and Bohemia besides, and eventually turned these states into hereditary domains.

Spain [edit]

In 1492 the Cosmic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon funded Christopher Columbus's plan to sheet west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a new world, the Americas. To forestall conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands.^[22]

The construction of the Spanish Empire was established under the Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700) and nether the Spanish Bourbon monarchs, the empire was brought under greater crown control and increased its revenues from the Indies.^[23] ^[24] The crown'south authority in The Indies was enlarged by the papal grant of powers of patronage, giving it power in the religious sphere.^[25] ^[26] ^[27]

Under Philip II of Kingdom of spain, Spain, rather than the Habsburg empire, was identified as a more than powerful nation than France and England globally. Furthermore, despite attacks from other European states, Espana retained its position of authority with apparent ease. Espana controlled the Netherlands until the Dutch defection, and of import states in southern Italy. The spanish claims to Naples and Sicily dated back to the 15th century, but had been marred past rival claims until the mid-16th century and the rule of Philip II. There would be no Italian revolts against Spanish rule until 1647. The death of the Ottoman emperor Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 and the naval victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 cemented the status of Spain every bit a superpower in Europe and the world. The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies of the Castilian Monarch in the Americas, Asia (Spanish Philippines), Europe and some territories in Africa and Oceania.

France [edit]

The Ancien Régime (French for "old regime") was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France from about 1450 until the French Revolution that started in 1789.^[28] The Ancien Régime was ruled by the belatedly Valois and Bourbon dynasties. Much of the medieval political centralization of France had been lost in the Hundred Years' War, and the Valois Dynasty'south attempts at re-establishing command over the scattered political centres of the state were hindered by the Huguenot Wars (or Wars of Religion). Much of the reigns of Henry 4, Louis Thirteen and the early years of Louis 14 were focused on administrative centralisation. Despite, yet, the notion of "absolute monarchy" (typified by the king's right to issue lettres de cachet) and the efforts by the kings to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a state of systemic irregularities: administrative (including tax), legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives oft overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their own rights in the matters of local authorities and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (like the Fronde) protested confronting this centralization.^[29]

The need for centralization in this period was directly linked to the question of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and 17th centuries (the Huguenot Wars between Catholics and Protestants and the Habsburg's internal family unit conflict) and the territorial expansion of French republic in the 17th century demanded keen sums which needed to be raised through taxes, such as the land tax ( taille ) and the revenue enhancement on salt ( gabelle ) and past contributions of men and service from the nobility. The key to this centralization was the replacing of personal patronage systems organized around the rex and other nobles by institutional systems around the state.^[thirty] The creation of intendants—representatives of royal ability in the provinces—did much to undermine local command by regional nobles. The aforementioned was true of the greater reliance shown by the royal court on the "noblesse de robe" as judges and royal counselors. The creation of regional parlements had initially the aforementioned goal of facilitating the introduction of imperial ability into newly assimilated territories, but as the parlements gained in self-assurance, they began to be sources of disunity.^[31]

England [edit]

Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Enough. Particular from The Family of Henry Viii: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c. 1572, attributed to Lucas de Heere.

This flow refers to England 1558–1603. The Elizabethan Era is the period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and was a golden historic period in English cultural history. It was the height of the English Renaissance, and saw the flowering of English literature and verse. This was likewise the time during which Elizabethan theatre grew. William Shakespeare, among others, composed highly innovative and powerful plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad. At home the Protestant Reformation was established and successfully defended confronting the Catholic powers of Spain and France.^[32]

The Jacobean era was the reign James I of England (1603–1625). Overseas exploration and establishment of trading factories sped upwardly, with the starting time permanent settlements in North America at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, in Newfoundland in 1610, and at Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620. One king now ruled England and Scotland; the latter was fully captivated past the Acts of Union 1707.^[33]

The tumultuous Caroline era was the reign of King Charles I (1625–1645), followed by his beheading by Oliver Cromwell'southward regime in 1649 . The Caroline era was dominated by the growing religious, political, and social conflict between the Male monarch and his supporters, termed the Royalist party, and the Puritan opposition that evolved in response to item aspects of Charles' dominion. The colonization of North America connected apace, with new colonies in Maryland (1634), Connecticut (1635), and Rhode Isle (1636).^[34]

Papacy [edit]

The papacy continued to exercise significant diplomatic influence during the Early on modern period. The Popes were frequently assembling Holy Leagues to affirm Catholic supremacy in Europe. During the Renaissance, Julius II and Paul Iii were largely involved in the Italian Wars and worked to preserve their primacy among the Italian princes. During the counter-reformation, the Papacy supported cosmic powers and factions all over Europe. Pope Pius V assembled the Catholic coalition that won the Boxing of Lepanto confronting the Turks. Pope Sixtus V sided with the catholics during the French wars of faith. Worldwide religious missions, such as the Jesuit China mission, were established by Pope Gregory 13. Gregory XIII is too responsible for the institution of the Gregorian calendar. Post-obit the Peace of Westphalia and the birth of nation-states, Papal claims to universal authority came effectively to an end.

Other political powers [edit]

Ottoman Empire
Early on Modern Italian republic
- Papal States
- Republic of Florence, Duchy of Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany
- Republic of Venice
- Duchy of Milan
- Republic of Genoa
- Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Portugal
Dutch Republic
Holy Roman Empire
- Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech)
- Habsburg monarchy (Austria)
Early on Modern Germany
- Duchy of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia
- Duchy of Bavaria, Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of the Palatinate
Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire
Early on Modernistic Sweden
Denmark-Norway
Early Modern Romania
Polish–Lithuanian Democracy
Kingdom of Republic of hungary

References [edit]

^ "Trent, Council of" in Cross, F. L. (ed.) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, 2005 (ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3).
^ Quoted in Responses to Some Questions Regarding Sure Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church Archived August 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ Kenneth Thou. Appold, The Reformation: A Cursory History (2011) online
^ Andrew Johnston, The protestant reformation in Europe (Routledge, 2014).
^ For a wide range of causes meet G.R. Elton, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 2: The Reformation, 1520–1559 (1st ed. 1958) online
^ George Huntston Williams, The Radical Reformation (3rd ed, 2000).
^ A.D. Wright, The Counter-Reformation: Catholic Europe and the Non-Christian Globe (Ashgate, 2005).
^ A.G. Dickens, The English Reformation (1991).
^ Patrick Collinson, The Reformation: A History (2006)
^ Margaret C. Jacob (1991). Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe. p. 215. ISBN9780199762798.
^ Bax, Ernest Belfort. "Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of the Equals", 1911 [1], accessed June 12, 2011.
^ John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army In Seventeenth-Century Europe," Social Science Quarterly (1969) 50#1 pp. 106-115 in JSTOR
^ Frederick L. Nussbaum, The triumph of scientific discipline and reason, 1660-1685 (1953) pp 147-48.
^ "History of Europe – Demographics". Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" Oxford Lexicon of the Christian Church
^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History (1996) p 593-94.
^ Hamish Scott, book review in English language Historical Review (Oct 2013) pp 1239-1241.
^ J.R. Jones, Britain and the World: 1649-1815 (1980), pp 38-39.
^ Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History vol 5 (1961) p 198-99, 206.
^ Charles Westward. Ingrao, The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform nether Frederick II, 1760-1785 (2003).
^ Davies, Europe (1996) pp 581-82.
^ Edward Gaylord Bourne, The History and Determination of the Line of Demarcation Established past Pope Alexander Half-dozen Between the Spanish and Portuguese Fields of Discovery and Colonization (1892) online in Gutenberg.org.
^ Tracy, James D. (1993). The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modernistic World, 1350–1750. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN978-0-521-45735-4.
^ Lynch, John. Bourbon Espana, 1700-1808. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1989, p. 21.
^ Schwaller, John F., "Patronato Existent" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture vol. 4, pp. 323–24.
^ Mecham, J. Lloyd, Church and Country in Latin America: A History of Political leader-Ecclesiastical Relations, revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, pp. 4–vi.
^ Haring, Clarence, The Spanish Empire in America. New York: Oxford Academy Press 1947, pp. 181–82.
^ "Ancien Regime", Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Mod World, The Gale Grouping Inc., 2004, retrieved 26 February 2017 – via Encyclopedia.com
^ See William Doyle, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime (2012) 656pp excerpt and text search.
^ Major 1994, pp. twenty–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMajor1994 (assist)
^ Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Ancien Authorities: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), political survey excerpt and text search.
^ D. M. Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Afterwards Tudors, 1547–1603 (1983)
^ Barry Coward, and Peter Gaunt. The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714 (5th ed. 2017), excerpt
^ Godfrey Davies, The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (Oxford Upward, 1959).

Referred literature [edit]

Rice, Eugene, F., Jr. (1970). The Foundations of Early Modern Europe: 1460-1559. W.W. Norton & Co.
John Coffey (2000), Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689, Studies in Modern History, Pearson Pedagogy
Benjamin J. Kaplan (2007), Divided by Faith. Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modernistic Europe. Cambridge University Press
Joseph South. Freedman (1999), Philosophy and the Arts in Primal Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities Aldershot: Ashgate

External links [edit]

Give-and-take of the medieval/mod transition, from the introduction to the pioneering Cambridge Modern History (1903)
Society for Renaissance Studies